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→Egypt and Mesopotamia
==Egypt and Mesopotamia==
[[File:626px-Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2_copy.jpg|thumbnail|Edwin Smith Papyrus]]
Egypt and Mesopotamia arguably developed the first true urban and complex societies anywhere. As these societies were literate at an early date, we also obtain relatively early information about important medical knowledge already known in the ancient world.<ref> For more information about Egyptian medicine and knowledge, see: Nunn, J. F. 2002. ''Ancient Egyptian Medicine''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. For information about Mesopotamian medicine, see: Geller, Markham J. 2010. ''Ancient Babylonian Medicine: Theory and Practice''. Ancient Cultures. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K. ; Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.</ref>
The Edwin Smith papyrus (ca. 1600 BC; Figure 1) is a famous example that is the first known text to deal with traumatic injuries, perhaps even battlefield wounds.<ref> For information on this text, see: Sanchez, Gonzalo M., Edmund S. Meltzer, Edwin Smith, and W. Benson Harer, eds. 2012. ''The Edwin Smith Papyrus: Updated Translation of the Trauma Treatise and Modern Medical Commentaries''. Atlanta, Ga: Lockwood Press.</ref> It also deals with dislocations, tumors, and bone fractures. The text provides diagnoses of different injuries and ailments, where the physician, unlike most other Egyptian texts, proceeds with a more scientific approach. The physician seems to understand the concept of a pulse and diagnosis of specific ailments; different treatments are prescribed such as bandaging, suturing the wounds, and stopping the bleeding.
The Ebers papyrus (c. 1550 BC) is a more magical text but has hundred of remedies, including with how to deal with psychological problems such as depression and dementia.<ref>For information on this text, see: ''Ancient Egyptian Medicine: The Papyrus Ebers''. 1974. Chicago: Ares Publishers.</ref> There is clear knowledge of the circulatory system and the heart’s central role in circulation of blood; such knowledge may not be surprising given Egyptian practices of mummification and extracting organs. Different eye, skin, and parasitic ailments are understood and medicines would be applied, such as the use of ochre. There were method for birth control, such as using a paste of dates, while the treatment for guinea worm disease includes using a stick for extraction by wrapping the worm, a process still used today (making it one of the longest-lived treatments known to us). One of the oldest relatively complete medical texts anywhere is the Kahun Gynecological papyrus (c. 1800 BC).<ref>For information on this text, see: Halioua, Bruno, and Bernard Ziskind. 2005. ''Medicine in the Days of the Pharaohs''. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, pg. 177.</ref> [[File:Tablet_with_prescriptions.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Babylonian tablet dealing with medical prescriptions]]The text mostly deals with women’s’ ailments such as gynecological diseases, fertility, pregnancy, contraception, and other areas. None of the treatments are surgical and all deal with applying medicines to different body parts to address the ailment. From other texts it is clear there was an understanding of things such as excessive bleeding, burns, skin problems, eye infections, and other sicknesses. These involved both combinations of magical rituals but also practical treatments including medicines, applying bandages. Surgery was carried out as well; bronze surgical equipment have been found in a tomb and it is known different tools have been used. Surgery was seen as more risky and was probably not considered the first option.<ref>For general information on surgery, treatments dealing with bleeding, infections, and other ailments and treatments, see Nunn 2002.</ref>[[File:626px-Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2_copy.jpg|thumbnail|Edwin Smith Papyrus]]
In Mesopotamia, by 1800-1600 BC many texts had existed that dealt with medical issues; medicine here was clearly very This includes texts that we can describe as medical textbooks, where groups of tablets together formed a volume that was likely used as a reference for physicians. In fact, these texts would have sections on diagnosis as well as sections on prognosis and treatments.<ref>For information on medical texts and how they were utilized, see: Scurlock, Jo Ann, and Burton R. Andersen. 2005. ''Diagnoses in Assyrian and Babylonian Medicine: Ancient Sources, Translations, and Modern Medical Analyses''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.</ref> What is surprising is the amount of emphasis put on observation before diagnosis in Mesopotamia, with prescribed treatments given in cases where the ailment is known. While omens and magical practices formed a large part of medical practices, it is clear there was an empirical side to medicine, with one physician focused on the magical aspects of healing and the other on the more practical methods of healing including providing medicines and other treatments.
Innovations such as medical ethics can be seen in the Law of Hammurabi (c. 1750 BC), for instance, where punishments against medical practitioners would be done in cases of failed surgeries or improper treatment.<ref>For information on patient isolation, see: Scurlock and Andersen. 2005, pg. 218.</ref>Infections that could spread were understood and people stricken would be quarantined.<ref>For information about Hammurabi’s code and its approach to medical ethics, see: Carrick, Paul. 2001. ''Medical Ethics in the Ancient World''. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, Pg. 72.</ref> Medicines were well developed and long lists of different types of medicines are known, in essence a form of pharmaceutical lists, some of the earliest known anywhere (Link below). We can deduce that the Babylonians, perhaps roughly contemporary with the Egyptians, had created the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and prescriptions by the 2nd millennium BC. Similar to Egypt, surgery was practiced, including c-sections performed on women, while removal of boils or skin ailments were done as well.<ref>For aspects of Babylonian medicine that is evident, see: Geller 2010.</ref>
==India==
