Changes

[[File:600px-Victory_stele_of_Naram_Sin_9066.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|Figure 1. Stele of Naram-Sin (2254–2218 BC), an Akkadian king, standing over his enemies and who likely employed professional soldiers in his empire as he created a larger empire|200px]]Warfare has been a constant throughout human history , and conflict can certainly be traced back to our hominid ancestors in our evolutionary past. While technology today is often used as the distinguishing characteristic of warfare, the development of the professional army, that is , fulltime soldiers and formations of a standing army, was also an important factor in making warfare an affair conducted throughout the year and allowed the establishment of large-scale states and empires to be possible.<ref>For general information about the history of war and armies, see: Chaliand, Gérard, ed. 1994. ''The Art of War in World History: From Antiquity to the Nuclear Age''. Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> This also paved the way for early states and empires to compete more with each other, helping to develop a variety of other social and technical innovations, including shaping our own world.

====Early Origins of Professional Armies====In early warfare, from what we can tell , when textual sources first become became available to us at around the 3rd millennium BC, men would be conscripted for specific campaigns or years when kings were fighting neighboring kingdoms, where the conscripted soldiers would not be required to serve for very long periods and would simply return to their previous employment/professions after the campaign would finish.<ref>For information about early conscription in warfare in city-states, see: Trigger, Bruce G. 2007. ''Understanding Early Civilizations: A Comparative Study''. 1. paperback ed. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.</ref> By the mid 3rd millennium BC, there were attempts to create standing armies of professional soldiers.<ref>For information on early professional armies in Mesopotamia, see Bauer, S. Wise. 2007. ''The History of the Ancient World: From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome''. 1st ed. New York: W.W. Norton, pg. 167.</ref>

Nevertheless, the presence of war helped to solidify the importance of kingship, while also giving kings greater authority in governing and , at time , economic affairs. The Akkadian army was one of the first empires , and its constant state of warfare in the early period of its first king, Sargon, required soldiers to be constantly campaigning rather than fighting on only a temporary basis (Figure 1).<ref> For information about the Akkadian Empire, starting from Sargon and his likely military developments, see: Spielvogel, Jackson J. 2015. ''Western Civilization''. Ninth edition. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning, pg. 13.</ref> This demonstrated the need to create a system of soldiers who could at least be contracted or employed for a period of time longer than the typical agricultural cycle, or rather when their farm labor was not required.[[File:Ramesses II on chariot.png|thumbnail|250px|left|Figure 2. Image of Ramses II on a chariot. Horse-drawn chariots, by the late 2nd millennium BC, became associated with elite troops and royalty.]]Another early king we know who attempted to make a professional army was Shulgi (c. 2094-2047 BC), a king who ruled the empire of Ur (the so-called Ur III Empire). <ref> For information on Shulgi and his reforms, including those related to the military, see: Foster, Benjamin R. 2015. ''The Age of Agade: Inventing Empire in Ancient Mesopotamia''. New York, NY: Routledge.</ref> While it is not clear what he did exactly, he did make the army more professional, full-time, permanent, and was a force that could easily be called upon as needed. This suggests that the army now consisted of soldiers who were strictly employed as professional soldiers rather than having other occupations, although the details of how this was done and the extent of this are not very clear.

In the Late Bronze Age (1600-1200 BC), as empires became larger and increasingly encountered foreign populations, the use of vassal states and the troops they could raise to augment the main army became a new development. This type of development allowed foreigners now to be a part of the army, although their full integration was likely still sometime some time away, as these foreign units likely served under their own leaders and units.<ref>Drews, Robert. 1996. The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe Ca. 1200 BC. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, pg. 151.</ref> Other developments include the use of elite troops, such as the chariotry by ancient Egypt (Figure 2), as shock troops who were better trained and equipped.

Early development of iron, present in the Hittite Empire, also gave that kingdom an advantage in tools. These differences in equipment and training may have created incentives to provide more resources to at least some of the soldiers of the state, developing a potential officer and professional core that would be complemented with conscripted regulars.<ref>Fields, Nic, and Brian Delf. 2006. Bronze Age War Chariots. New Vanguard 119. Oxford ; New York: Osprey.</ref> These types of early, perhaps semi-professional armies, Egypt and the Hittites, fought each other in a famous battle at Kadesh. In both cases, it is clear that the armies were divided into elite units where were supplemented by other, regular units. <ref>Meskell, Lynn. 2004. Private Life in New Kingdom Egypt. Princeton, N.J.; Woodstock: Princeton University Press.</ref> What was beginning to change in warfare in the Near East and the military, in general, was a war not only began to be professional but it also occurred in new and different places. This included the high seas, such as the Mediterranean, where navies developed and specialized troops who were trained to fight on ships developed, perhaps for the first time.<ref>Wachsmann, Shelley. 2009. Seagoing Ships and Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant. 2. print. Ed Rachal Foundation Nautical Archaeology Series. College Station, Tex: Texas A & M Univ. Press.</ref>

====Key Reforms====[[File:Ashurnasipal with official.jpg|thumbnail|250px|left|Figure 3. An Assyrian official meeting with the Assyrian king.]]While these early armies may be considered professional and represent transformations in how warfare was conducted with standing armies, it was not until key reforms under the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911-612 BC) do we now see consistent use of professional armies that becomes became prominent in the Near East from this period onwards. This begins to spreads to Europe and eventually influence influenced the Roman Empire.<ref>For information about the Neo-Assyrian state and its development, see: Radner, Karen. 2015. ''Ancient Assyria: A Very Short Introduction''. First edition. Very Short Introductions 424. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.</ref>

However, what preceded the professionalization of the military was the professionalization of the provincial and administrative system. In other words, running an empire became a more professional task. Beginning in the 9th century BC, we begin to see a new pattern, where kings appear to depend more on trained high officials who are eunuchs , and a host of other bureaucratic officials began to be associated with the royal court and provinces. The empire appears to depend on officials, or “Great Ones,” who obtained their position, in part, based on merit and not simply through family or lineage connections to the royal family. <ref>For more information, see: Karlsson, Mattias. 2016. Relations of Power in Early Neo-Assyrian State Ideology. Studies in Ancient Near Eastern Records, volume 10. Boston: De Gruyter, pg. 38.</ref> Thus, it was the realization that professional administration was needed that likely suggested that other aspects of the empire needed to become professional (Figure 3).

This included the chariotry, cavalry, and infantry units; specialized units also included naval units consisting of Phoenicians. Other specialized soldiers include engineering units used for siege warfare. In addition, the army’s command structure became more sophisticated with developed ranks, similar to modern militaries. Several different large and independent armies were created within the state, as this helped to ensure that no single military unit would have unrestrained power and threaten the king’s authority. While kings still often led battles, generals now also began to have greater authority to lead armies without the presence of the king. The armies were now always able to fight in any time of the year, giving them a major advantage over enemies who were still constrained by labor shortages during the agriculture season, when men would have been needed to work the fields. [[File: Tiglath-Pileser_II_-_1889_drawing.jpg|thumbnail|Figure 4. Depiction of Tiglath-pileser III’s professional army fighting and besieging a city with a siege engine.]]Although this facilitated the Neo-Assyrian Empire’s ability to conduct warfare and expand in many areas, and sometimes simultaneously, generals could still potentially be threats to the throne. Foreigners were also given opportunities to be involved in the military, which gave them a way to socially rise and benefit from the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Auxiliary and support troops, but also foreign<dh-born officers, began to be evident in the Assyrian state. <ref>Radner, Karen. 2015. Ancient Assyria: A Very Short Introduction. First edition. Very Short Introductions 424. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, pg. 97.<ad/ref> Furthermore, the Neo-Assyrians maintained the traditional conscription of its citizens as needed, which helped it attain reserve soldiers that were sometimes needed in times of crises or men shortages.

Key This included the chariotry, cavalry, and infantry units; specialized units also included naval units consisting of Phoenicians. Other specialized soldiers include engineering units used for siege warfare. In addition, the army’s command structure became more sophisticated with developed ranks, similar to modern militaries. Several different large and independent armies were created within the state, as this helped to ensure that no single military reforms were reforms unit would have unrestrained power and threaten the king’s authority. While kings still often led battles, generals now also began to have greater authority to lead armies without the infrastructure presence of empirethe king. Rapid transport along long-distance roadsThe armies were now always able to fight at any time of the year, intelligence provided giving them a major advantage over enemies who were still constrained by fast riding horseman and scout teamslabor shortages during the agriculture season, when men would have been needed to work the fields. [[File: Tiglath-Pileser_II_-_1889_drawing.jpg|thumbnail|left|250px|Figure 4. Depiction of Tiglath-pileser III’s professional army fighting and armories provided besieging a city with a way for armies siege engine.]]Although this facilitated the Neo-Assyrian Empire’s ability to be mobilized quicklyconduct warfare and expand in many areas, respond to new and emergent threats where neededsometimes simultaneously, and generals could still potentially be properly equippedthreats to the throne. Satellite imagery, Foreigners were also given opportunities to be involved in factthe military, shows that these road systems, amazingly still visible, emerged which gave them away to socially rise and benefit from the great Neo-Assyrian capitals Empire. Auxiliary and connected support troops, but also foreign-born officers, began to far-away regionsbe evident in the Assyrian state.<ref>AltaweelRadner, MarkKaren. 20082015. The Imperial Landscape of AshurAncient Assyria: Settlement and Land Use in the Assyrian HeartlandA Very Short Introduction. Heidelberger Studien Zum Alten Orient, BdFirst edition. 11Very Short Introductions 424. HeidelbergOxford, United Kingdom: Heidelberger OrientverlagOxford University Press, pg. 97.</ref> Furthermore, the Neo-Assyrians maintained the traditional conscription of its citizens as needed, which helped it attain reserve soldiers that were sometimes needed in times of crises or men shortages.

In essence, Key to military reforms were reforms to the development infrastructure of the concept of military logistics was also critical for making military forces professionalsempire. Officials Rapid transport along long-distance roads, intelligence provided by fast riding horseman and military officers were charged with maintaining this infrastructure scout teams, and ensuring it can armories provided a way for armies to be used for authorized mobilized quickly, respond to new and emergent threats where needed, and appropriate purposesbe properly equipped. These officials also had a large degree of independence Satellite imagery, in decision-makingfact, shows that these road systems, amazingly still visible, further removing the king emerged from key military decisions. This process contributed to making the military another center of gravity for power in addition great Assyrian capitals and connected to the royal authorities, while also creating more diverse ranks and increasingly larger military bureaucracyfar-away regions.<ref>For more on the Neo-Assyrian military bureaucracy, see: AlbarellaAltaweel, Umberto, and Angela Trentacoste, edsMark. 20112008. EthnozooarchaeologyThe Imperial Landscape of Ashur: The Present Settlement and Past of Human-Animal RelationshipsLand Use in the Assyrian Heartland. Oxford : OakvilleHeidelberger Studien Zum Alten Orient, CTBd. 11. Heidelberg: Oxbow Books ; David Brown Book Co, pg. 231Heidelberger Orientverlag.</ref>

In essence, the development of the concept of military logistics was also critical for making military forces professionals. Officials and military officers were charged with maintaining this infrastructure and ensuring it could be used for authorized and appropriate purposes. These officials also had a large degree of independence in decision-making, further removing the king from key military decisions. This process contributed to making the military another center of gravity for power in addition to the royal authorities while also creating more diverse ranks and increasingly larger military bureaucracy.<ref>For more on the Neo-Assyrian military bureaucracy, see: Albarella, Umberto, and Angela Trentacoste, eds. 2011. Ethnozooarchaeology: The Present and Past of Human-Animal Relationships. Oxford : Oakville, CT: Oxbow Books ; David Brown Book Co, pg. 231.</ref> ====Later Adoptions====

====Conclusion====

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====References====